Fig 1.
Distribution map of extant Centroplacaceae, Malpighiaceae, and Elatinaceae.
Centroplacaceae demonstrate a disjoint distribution between western Africa and Southeast Asia (blue), while Malpighiaceae are predominantly located in tropical South America, North America, Africa, and Southeast Asia (green). Elatinaceae is cosmopolitan (magenta). Data are from the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website [33]; map is adapted from NASA Earth Observatory (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/).
Fig 2.
Fifty percent maximum likelihood (ML) majority-rule consensus tree of Elatinaceae based on the combined four-gene data set.
Values above branches are ML bootstrap values (left) and Bayesian inference posterior probabilities (right). A hyphen indicates that the node is not present in a particular analysis. The relationship of Centroplacaceae(Malpighiaceae, Elatinaceae) was constrained for the purposes of our analyses. We assigned all of our sampled accessions into Niedenzu’s sectional grouping based on his original classification criteria [56]. Our placements of the Australian species in this classification were aided by the work of Leach [7]. Geographical distributions of species are abbreviated as follows: N = North and Central America, S = South America, E = Eurasia (Europe and Mainland Asia), F = Africa, U = Australia, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific Islands, A = Insular Southeast Asia, including but not restricted to Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines, M = Madagascar.
Fig 3.
Biogeographic reconstructions of early diverging lineages of Centroplacaceae(Malpighiaceae, Elatinaceae) clade inferred using the DEC+J model.
Ninety-five percent confidence intervals of the divergence time estimation using treePL shown in blue at each node. Fossil calibrations are marked by stars. Geographic distribution of each species is assigned to seven regions based on their collection localities and current distribution (colored boxes to the right). The range of each region is shown in the map, including North America (NAm, orange), South America (SAm, blue), Eurasia (Eura, purple), Africa (Afr, pink), Australia (Aus, light green), Southeast Asia (SeA, yellow), and Madagascar (Mad, dark green). Map is adapted from the Nature Earth (http://www.naturalearthdata.com/). The ancestral range reconstructions shown in color boxes at each node represent the scenarios with the highest marginal log-likelihood. Colored boxes at each branch represent geographic ranges immediately after a cladogenesis event. In the case where subsequent branches (or nodes) had the same information as the ancestral node, the boxes were suppressed for brevity. Continuous figure can be found in S1 Fig.
Fig 4.
Spatiotemporal evolution of the Centroplacaceae(Malpighiaceae, Elatinaceae) clade.
a) Early evolutionary history of Centroplacaceae [C] (Malpighiaceae [M], Elatinaceae [E]) reflecting hypothesized western Gondwanan vicariance scenarios involving South America and Africa, including: i.) the split of Centroplacaceae(Malpighiaceae, Elatinaceae); ii.) the range shift of stem group Malpighiaceae (MSTEM) from Africa into South America. b) Initial divergence events within Elatinaceae: the initial split within crown group Elatinaceae coincided with African inheritance by Bergia (EB) and a range shift to Eurasia by Elatine (EE). Elatine then spread into North America via the North Atlantic land bridge or Beringia. c) Movement and diversification within Elatine: after the early occupation by Elatine of North America and Eurasia, the lineages split in the late Eocene. This split is hypothesized to result from climate change or reduced paleoland availability. The North American lineage both diversified locally (spread arrows) and migrated into South America (black arrow), while the European lineages diversified independently (spread arrows). d) Dispersal of Bergia into North America and Australia: after the early diversification of Bergia within Africa, a split occurred between these landmasses in the early Oligocene. This split gave rise to a wholly African lineage that underwent recent in situ diversification (spread arrows) and a hypothesized migration into North America. One lineage from the largely North American clade then moved into Australia. These two migrations possibly involve long-distance dispersal (dashed line). Paleogeographical maps are modified from [56], which is based on C.R. Scotese's Paleomap project (http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm).