White-throated Dipper Cinclus cinclus Scientific name definitions

17–20 cm; male 53–76 g and female 46–72 g (nominate), male 60–76 g and female 50–67 g (gularis), sexes combined c. 41–65 g (leucogaster). Nominate subspecies has head down to ear-coverts and lores dark brown; upperparts darker and grayer with feathers narrowly edged blackish; flight-feathers and tail blackish-brown to gray-brown; chin and throat to breast white, belly to vent blackish-brown; iris brown; bill black; legs dark brown. Sexes similar, female slightly smaller and shorter-winged than male. Juvenile is distinctive, dark slate-gray above, feathers with black-brown margins, wings fringed pale, white chin and throat , dark-barred grayish underparts. subspecies differ mainly in coloration of underparts, also in tone of upperparts: hibernicus is darker than nominate, has narrow rufous band between breast and belly; gularis is paler above than previous, with broader chestnut-brown band  on lower breast and central belly; <em>aquaticus</em> has paler upperparts than preceding subspecies, head and nape gray-brown, some populations with broad bright chestnut band on lower breast and belly; uralensis is very similar to last, but upperparts darker; minor is also similar, but larger (one of largest subspecies); <em>caucasicus</em> is paler, upperparts and belly dull gray-brown, rump and uppertail-coverts gray, some populations with tinge of rufous on lower breast and upper belly; persicus is similar to previous, but supposedly larger; rufiventris is smaller than last, has darker rufous band below; leucogaster is distinctive, all white below except for gray lower flanks, dark vent, also rare dark morph (“sordidus”) entirely dark brown below, and intermediate forms; cashmeriensis  has chocolate-brown upperparts and lower belly, paler upper belly, has pale and dark morphs; <em>przewalskii</em> resembles last, but belly wholly dark, also has pale and dark morphs .

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Fast-flowing, clear-water rocky streams and rivers with riffles and exposed rocks, and with abundant invertebrate prey; shallow watercourses in broadleaf woodland, in semi-natural forest and on open moorland. Also glacial lakes. Requires rocky cliffs or artificial sites, e.g. bridges, for breeding. Occasionally slower-flowing lowland rivers and seashores in non-breeding season. Mostly in uplands, e.g. in NW Africa commonest on permanent streams of High Atlas at 900–2600m; breeds 2000–3500 m in Afghanistan and 3000–5500 m in Himalayas; in non-breeding season sometimes lower, down to 2400 m in Himalayas and to c. 1000 m elsewhere in Asia, and locally down to sea-level, especially in Europe. Many present throughout year at high altitudes, so long as some water remains free of ice.

Resident, but some post-breeding descent from high altitudes to more lowland rivers, sometimes to coast; more migratory in extreme N, e.g. N Scandinavia. In Europe, some migrate S or SE from Norway and Sweden to Denmark, Finland and SE Baltic region, occasionally to E Britain; some movement S in Ural Mts; male ringed as nestling in Switzerland and female ringed as nestling in C Sweden, both in Jun 1992, both retrapped in Nov of following year in N Poland (where bred together in 1994). Altitudinal movement recorded in NW Africa and Asia, dependent largely on presence or otherwise of ice-free water; many remain at high altitudes even in extremely cold temperatures, so long as running water available; sometimes wanders for long distances. Limited juvenile dispersal, generally over very short distances. Accidental in Faeroe Is and Malta.

Freshwater insects  and larvae  ; more rarely, marine invertebrates in coastal areas. Principal prey mayfly (Ephemeroptera) and stonefly (Plecoptera) nymphs, and larvae of caddis flies (Trichoptera), also dragonfly nymphs (Odonoata) and fly larvae (Diptera), especially blackfly (Simulium); shrimps (Gammarus) also taken; occasionally small fish  , mostly bullheads (Cottidae), some salmon fry (Salmo). In study in Britain, Apr–Jun, mayfly nymphs formed 56·7% of diet by number, and caddis-fly larvae 25·3%, stoneflies 7·5%, dipteran larvae 2·8%, beetles (Coleoptera) 2·5%. In 337 stomachs from W Germany, Mar–Aug, caddis-fly larvae present in 92·6%, stoneflies in 21·4%, Gammarus in 17·2%, molluscs in 8%, beetles in 7·4%, plant material in 6·5%, fish in 6·2%. Seasonal analyses show predominance of mayflies, stoneflies and caddis flies during breeding season, shrimps, molluscs, beetles and fish becoming more important during winter. Requires up to 79 g of food per day. Diet of young similar to that of adult. Forages on rocks and stones on riverbed, also on wetted surface of rocks above water; sometimes on riverbank among tree roots and leaves; rarely, on coastal shorelines. Feeds mostly by plunging into swift-flowing water; wades in shallow water , but in deeper water generally submerges completely. Swims against current, using wings as main source of locomotion, “walking” on river bottom. In various studies, mean duration of dives 3·2 seconds, range 2·4–7·4 seconds, generally increasing with depth of water, but rarely longer than 10 seconds; exceptionally, up to c. 30 seconds. Maximum rate of dives 11·5 per minute.

Male song high-pitched, piercing, loud melodious warbling or trilling, comprises variety of notes in any order, with short phrases repeated as single units, has been likened to that of a thrush (Turdidae) or wren (Troglodytidae); female song less melodious, consisting of scratchy whistles and disconnected units. Call a loud “zzit zzit” or “dzchit dzchit”; rattling calls in greeting and in courtship.

Laying Feb–Jun in British Is, mid-Mar to May in NW & C Europe, early May to early Jun in Scandinavia; mid-Mar to May in NW Africa; in Asia, breeds Apr–Jul in N and mid-Feb to Aug in S; 1–2 broods, rarely 3 in S of range. Mostly monogamous, but some males polygynous; solitary nester. Nest built by both sexes, a large globular structure up to 30–45 cm across (often less, c. 20 cm) with side entrance hole , made mainly of moss, lined by female with dry leaves; in rock crevice or cliff ledge, in masonry or on ledge in wall or under bridge, sometimes behind waterfall, rarely in tree, almost invariably over running water, rarely in building away from water; will use nestbox; linear territory of 400–500 m or more, longer (up to 2·5 km) on less favourable watercourses such as acidic streams. Clutch 3–6 eggs, rarely 7, normally 4 or 5; incubation by female, starting with last or penultimate egg, period 15–18 days, rarely to 20 days; chicks brooded by female, fed by both parents, fledge at c. 20–24 days in Britain, 23–27 days in Germany, average 21·5 days in Switzerland; juveniles fed by adults for 1–2 weeks. As male chicks (much heavier than female ones) are more expensive to rear than are daughters, but fitness returns per unit investment are equal for the sexes, one may predict that large clutches should be female-biased; in a field study of this dipper in Norway, where social monogamy is predominant mating system, indicative of similar reproductive variances for the two sexes, a significant deficit of males was found for the largest clutch size, of 6 eggs (27% males), but not for 5-egg clutches (47% males) (6 Øigarden, T. and Lifjeld, J. T. (2013). Primary sex ratios vary with clutch size in the size-dimorphic White-throated Dipper Cinclus cinclus. Journal of Ornithology. 154(1): 91-97. DOI 10.1007/s10336-012-0874-7. Close ). Of 1986 eggs in 455 nests in Britain, 61·05% hatched and 84·1% of hatchlings reared to 14 days, overall success 51·4%; of 258 eggs laid in 66 clutches in W Germany, 80% fledged, mean 3·91 young per nest.

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Common and widespread on suitable watercourses. Estimated European population 120,000–300,000 pairs. Densities highest in shallow, fast-flowing streams, thus tend to increase with gradient, altitude and presence of rapids; 1·4–2·2 pairs/10 km in SE Norway, and in C Europe mostly 0·7–10 pairs/10 km; 1·15–2·67 pairs/10 km in Wales, 2·1 pairs/10 km in NW England (Cumbria) and up to 9·7 pairs/10 km in S Scotland (Perthshire); 2·4 pairs/10 km in W Germany and 2·3 pairs/10 km in Austria. Apparently reasonably stable, but periodic fluctuations in small, isolated populations (e.g. on some islands); Cyprus race (olympicus) now extinct; formerly bred in lowlands of NW France, and no recent confirmed breeding in lowlands of E Germany; occasional breeding in Netherlands. In NW Africa (race minor), probably maximum of 1000 pairs in Morocco (Rif Mts, Atlas Mts); fewer than 100 pairs in Algeria, where known from very few localities (mainly in Hodna and Aurès Mts, in NE). No comparable data from elsewhere in range. Common to locally common in Asia, but scarce to rare on S side of Himalayas; fairly common in China.

Throughout range, status and abundance strongly reflect water quality and habitat structure of rivers, and this species is widely recognized as an indicator of environmental quality; pollution that adversely affects aquatic prey also has an impact on dippers. Chemical pollution, as from acidification (“acid rain”), industry, organic effluent, sheep dips and other xenobiotic substances, are potential threats. In parts of Europe (e.g. Wales, Scotland, Scandinavia), shown to suffer severe adverse effects from acidification of rivers, from which recovery likely to be slow (taking decades, even centuries); in Germany and Poland, reported declines more directly attributed to industrial pollution. Poor water quality revealed in impaired breeding, subtle changes in survival, or territory selection; moreover, “pollution” reported cause of death in 3% of recoveries; on other hand, effects on survival of persistent pollutants such as PCBs appear now to be negligible or non-existent. Breeding success known to be negatively affected by water acidification at least in Scotland (7 Vickery, J. (1992). The reproductive success of the Dipper Cinclus cinclus in relation to the acidity of streams in south-west Scotland. Freshwater Biol. 28: 195-205. Close ) and in S Norway (8 Øigarden, T. and Linløkken, A. (2010). Is the breeding success of the White-throated Dipper Cinclus cinclus in Hedmark, Norway influenced by acid rain? Ornis Norvegica. 33: 118–129. Close ). In S Europe and elsewhere, hydro-electric and irrigation schemes may be causing declines by reducing flow rates in watercourses. Habitat degradation, water abstraction and water impoundment are negative factors in parts of range.