Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis Scientific name definitions

14–15 cm; 15–39 g. Slim, medium-sized pipit with strongly streaked breast, rather heavy bill . Nominate race has buffish supercilium and lores, brown and buff ear-coverts, and blackish-brown malar stripe; olive-brown above, top of head to mantle and scapulars streaked dark brown, back more lightly streaked, rump unstreaked; primaries and secondaries dark brown with narrow pale buff edges, tertials and greater and median wing-coverts brown, edged whitish, lesser coverts brown, edged buff; tail dark brown, T5 with small white spot on inner web, T6 white on outer web and most of inner web; whitish below, pale buff wash on, particularly, breast and flanks, heavy blackish-brown streaking on breast , narrower and more sparse streaks on flanks; underwing-coverts and axillaries dusky grey with pale buff fringes; iris blackish-brown; bill dark brown, pale pinkish base of lower mandible; legs pale brownish-pink. Differs from A. pratensis mainly in more olive tone above, bolder supercilium, thinner streaks on flanks, heavier bill, shorter hind claw. Sexes alike. Immature is more buff-brown, less olive, above, pale feather edgings often giving slight scaly effect, paler below . Race schlueteri differs from nominate in having blunter wing and longer tail, broader dark streaks and paler olive-grey fringes on upperparts, more heavily streaked black underparts, also wider and deeper base of bill; haringtoni  resembles previous, but slightly paler above, streaks below extend farther down on flanks, differs from nominate race in more earth-brown (less olive) upperparts, paler fulvous breast and flanks, heavier streaking on breast.

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Editor's Note: Additional distribution information for this taxon can be found in the 'Subspecies' article above. In the future we will develop a range-wide distribution article.

Breeding habitats include woodland edge, open woodland, cleared woodland and young conifer plantations, often with isolated remaining tall trees, also heathland or grassland with developing scrub and trees; from sea-level to just above tree-line, to 2300 m in S Europe (Alps); at 2800–4000 m in Himalayas (race haringtoni). On passage favours similar habitats, as well as more open areas. In non-breeding season, occurs in cleared areas in forest, in open savanna, and in cultivation and coffee plantations with tall shade trees; occasionally found in montane grassland with scattered bushes in Malawi; to 3000 m in Africa.

Long-distance migrant. W populations of nominate race migrate to Afrotropics, spending non-breeding season in region from W Africa E to Ethiopia and, in E Africa, S to W Angola, NE Botswana and NE South Africa; a few move only as far as Mediterranean region and in Persian Gulf states; E populations move to Indian Subcontinent. Both schlueteri and haringtoni winter wholly in India. Leaves breeding grounds in Aug–Sept, main passage in W Mediterranean during Sept, in Middle East during mid-Sept to late Oct, peak arrival in S parts of Africa in late Oct and early Nov; departure from wintering areas from Feb/Mar, arrives in C Europe from early Apr, reaching N parts of breeding range in May. E migrants reach Indian Subcontinent in late Aug and early Sept, departing from mid-Mar to early May. Vagrants recorded N to Spitsbergen and E to extreme NW USA (Alaska) and Japan; also on several islands of E Atlantic, including Madeira and Cape Verde Is.

Food includes a range of invertebrates, mostly insects; also some plant material in winter. Nestlings fed exclusively with invertebrates . In six dietary studies in Eurasia, beetles (Coleoptera), especially weevils (Curculionidae), were the most important prey. In analysis of stomach contents of 60 birds from Russia, curculionids were found in 75%, bugs (Hemiptera) in 42%, leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) in 37% and caterpillars in 33%; other prey occurring in 10–18% of stomachs were click beetles (Elateridae), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), ground beetles (Carabidae), chafers (Scarabaeidae) and spiders (Araneae); less common items included rove beetles (Staphylinidae) and nocturnal ground beetles, small flies (Diptera), ants (Hymenoptera), snails, plant seeds. Other prey in Palearctic Region include earwigs (Dermaptera), lacewings and snake flies (Neuroptera), caddis flies (Trichoptera), harvestmen (Opiliones) and millipedes (Diplopoda). In African non-breeding quarters, grasshoppers, beetles, lepidopterans, bugs and termites (Isoptera) are important prey; stomachs of birds from Zimbabwe contained, among other items, leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), weevils and other coleopterans, larval and adult butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), and heteropteran bugs. Plant material taken in breeding range includes fruits, e.g. of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus), buds of aspen (Populus tremulus), and seeds of pine (Pinus) and birch (Betulus); millet (Panicum) grain as well as nectar of Erythrina taken in Africa. Forages mostly on ground, mainly among leaf litter and low herbage, also occasionally on twigs, branches and trunks of trees and on stumps. Often in small to medium-sized flocks on passage and in winter.

Song , from treetop or in flight, up to 8 seconds long, a series of trills and repeated notes, has several contrasting sections, generally ending with far-carrying “seee-er, seee-er, seee-er”. Call a single drawn-out “tseep” or “teez” in flight or when alarmed; also high-pitched “seet-seet-seet”.

Season late Apr to Aug in NW Europe, May to end Jul in India; often two broods, rarely three. Monogamous, occasionally polygamous; territorial. In song flight, male makes angled ascent from tree perch to c. 15 m, occasionally to 30 m or more, descends in parachute fashion, alights on same perch or another one. Nest built by female, a substantial cup of dry grass, often with moss foundation, lined with finer grasses, placed in depression in ground. Clutch 2–8 eggs, usually 4–6; incubation by female, period 12–14 days; chicks fed by both parents, fledging period 12–14 days, but chicks often leave nest several days earlier. Success rates of 54–72% reported (74–87% of eggs hatch, from which 73–83% of chicks fledge). Nests parasitized by Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus).

Not globally threatened (Least Concern). Common throughout range. European population recently estimated at c. 17,000,000 pairs, excluding c. 10,000,000 pairs in European Russia; over 4,000,000 pairs in Sweden alone. European population has probably remained stable since 1970, with decreases or increases in only a few countries. Marked decline noted in Netherlands since 1900, and declines have occurred also in England, N Finland and Switzerland; by contrast, range expansion recorded in Scotland during 20th century. Expansions and fluctuations due partly to changing nature of habitats; for example, newly planted conifer forest on upland moorland may cause local increases, but, as trees mature, numbers of this pipit decrease, only to increase again when clear-felling and replanting take place; recently coppiced broadleaf woodland can also cause temporary local increases. No apparent threats in wintering areas; in Africa, clearance of forest for agriculture may, if scattered trees retained, provide more suitable habitat than that offered by dense-canopy forest.