The Alps
Overview
Being the highest mountain range of western Europe, the Alps are a formidable barrier that separates the cool and moist temperate climates of southern Germany from the subtropical and Mediterranean climates of northern Italy. The Alps have been formed by the collision of the African continental plate in the south with the Eurasian plate in the north, a process that is still ongoing and the cause of frequent earthquakes in the region.
The name “Alps” is simply the plural of the German word “Alp”, which refers to the mountain pastures that have been used by humans for the production of hay and the grazing of cattle and goats. The term was eventually extended to the entire mountain range as the place of grazing pastures.
The Alps are a place of great biodiversity that results from a combination of different effects. The wide range in altitude from the green valley floors to the ice-covered mountain peaks has resulted in a large diversity of highly specialised plant and animal species that have adapted to the extreme climatic conditions of their mountain habitat. This has led to a large number of endemic species that can only be found in the Alps within certain altitude limits. Examples include the Alpine Grayling (Oeneis glacialis), a butterfly that is typically found at altitudes of 1500–3000 m, or the Hairy Alpenrose (Rhododendron hirsutum), a wildflower that is found in the eastern Alps at altitudes of usually 600–2500 m.
In addition, the human use of Alpine meadows for cattle grazing and haymaking has created special anthropogenic habitats with their own specialised flora and fauna. Several rare species can be found on these meadows, including endangered butterflies such as the Large Blue (Maculinea arion) or the Turquoise Blue (Polyommatus dorylas).
As with the rest of the planet, the fragile ecosystem of the Alps is currently under severe threat from the effects of climate change. With melting glaciers and thawing permafrost, the mountains are literally crumbling as the stabilising ice cover vanishes. At the same time, there is strong evidence for plant and animal species shifting to higher altitude to escape rising temperatures. Other species that were originally restricted to southern Europe have crossed the Alps and established themselves in central Europe. A notable example of this is the Southern Small White (Pieris mannii) which first appeared in southern Germany in 2008 and has since spread across most of the country.
Fauna
The Alps are famous for their iconic animals, including large predators such as the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) or the Wolf (Canis lupus), but also smaller, unique animals such as the Alpine Marmot (Marmota marmota) or the Alpine Salamander (Salamandra atra).
Among the more common mammals found throughout the Alps is the Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex), called Steinbock in German, a species of goat that had been hunted almost to extinction by the mid nineteenth century, but since then has become common and widespread again thanks to adequate protection and reintroduction to many parts of the Alps. Ibex live in rocky, mountainous terrain above the treeline and can climb to altitudes of up to 3500 m. The males are particularly impressive due to their large body size and long horns, while the horns of females are significantly shorter.
Another common mammal species is the Chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), called Gemse in German, a species of Caprinae that is related to sheep and goats. Unlike the Alpine Ibex, it is not restricted to the Alps, but inhabits mountain ranges across central and southern Europe and western Asia. In the Alps, Chamois usually occur in rocky terrain in forests and Alpine tundra up to an altitude of about 2500 m and normally live in small herds.
Butterflies
With well over 200 recorded species, the Alps are a paradise for butterflies. The main reason for this exceptional biodiversity is the large range of different habitats and climates found at different altitudes from the valleys up to the snow-covered mountain peaks. The geographic isolation of many Alpine habitats has also led to a high degree of endemism, with numerous high-altitude species, most notably in the genus Erebia, restricted to specific mountain ranges of the Alps. Butterfly diversity is also driven by the mix of natural and anthropogenic habitats found in the Alps. In fact, some of the most endangered butterfly species, such as the Large Blue (Maculinea arion), are mostly found on Alpine pastures grazed by cattle during the summer months.
The endangered Apollo (Parnassius apollo) is arguably the most famous and most spectacular butterfly of the Alps, and it is a delight to see these magnificent creatures flutter around on warm and sunny summer days. Apollos are normally found on rocky Alpine grasslands with a large supply of nectar-rich flowers from which the adult butterflies feed. While classified as critically endangered in Germany at the national level, the Apollo is still relatively common in the Bavarian Alps in suitable habitat.
Among the most magnificent butterflies of the Alps are the Coppers (subfamily Lycaeninae). By far the most common species is the Small Copper or Common Copper (Lycaena phlaeas) which has a circumpolar distribution and in North America is known as the American Copper. Another fairly common species is the inconspicuous Sooty Copper (Lycaena tityrus). While the upperside of the females looks similar to that of the Small Copper, the upperside of the males is uniformly brown with a series of dark markings. Above about 1200 m one can encounter the alpine subspecies, Lycaena tityrus subsp. subalpinus, which has the markings on the upperside and underside greatly reduced.
The most spectacular of the alpine Coppers is without doubt the Purple-edged Copper (Lycaena hippothoe). With their bright orange upperside and iridescent purple sheen, the males are an absolute delight to see, while the females are much less colourful. Again, there is a unique alpine subspecies, Lycaena hippothoe subsp. eurydame, which can be encountered above about 1500 m. The males of the alpine subspecies lack the purple sheen on the upperside, while the upperside of the females is plain brow and without any orange markings.
With approximately 40 species, the Blues (subfamily Polyommatinae) are particularly well represented in the Alps. While rare and endangered across most of Europe, the Large Blue (Maculinea arion) is still fairly common on Alpine pastures from the valleys to above the tree line. The butterflies are on the wing in June and July (dependent on altitude), while the caterpillars are noteworthy for parasitising certain ant species. The amount of blue suffusion on the upperside of the wings varies with altitude, often being less extended in high-altitude populations.
Another species that is still regularly encountered throughout the Alps is the Mazarine Blue (Polyommatus semiargus). It usually occurs on Alpine meadows and pastures and is often found in the same habitats as the Large Blue. While the males are noted for their deep-blue colour, the females are just uniformly brown and far less conspicuous.
Among the most common species of Blue found in the Alps are the Small Blue (Cupido minimus) and the Common Blue (Polyommatus icarus). The Small Blue is one of Europe’s smallest butterflies and easily identified by its small size and grey-brown upperside colour. While confined to calcareous soils, it is usually abundant on suitable meadows and grasslands. The aptly named Common Blue is Europe’s most common and widespread species of Blue. In the Alps it occurs in a range of different habitats from the valley floor up to around 2000 m altitude.
Among the numerous species of Hairstreak (subfamily Theclinae) found throughout the Alps, the Green Hairstreak (Callophrys rubi) is by far the most common and widespread one. It lacks the hind wing tails that are characteristic for other species of Hairstreak. As a result of their uniformly green underside, the butterflies are perfectly camouflaged and almost invisible when resting on the ground. Green Hairstreaks are found in a range of different habitats and are particularly abundant on Alpine meadows and pastures from the valley floor up to the tree line.
Another interesting group of butterflies native to the Alps are the Fritillaries (subfamily Melitaeinae). Several high-altitude taxa are either endemic or largely restricted to the Alps, including the Little Fritillary (Melitaea asteria), Cynthia’s Fritillary (Euphydryas cynthia) and the western European subspecies of the Asian Fritillary (Euphydryas intermedia subsp. wolfensbergeri). Among the more common species found at lower altitude are the Heath Fritillary (Melitaea athalia) and the False Heath Fritillary (Melitaea diamina).
Among the many other butterfly species of the Alps, the Alpines or Ringlets (genus Erebia) are noteworthy for their large diversity of high-altitude species, many of which are restricted to small areas of the Alps, while others, such as the Bright Eyed Ringlet (Erebia oeme), are more widespread across other European mountain ranges. The most extreme species, such as the Sooty Ringlet (Erebia pluto) or the Silky Ringlet (Erebia gorge), thrive on barren scree slopes at altitudes of up to 3000 m far above the tree line.
Other typical high-altitude species found throughout the Alps include the Small Apollo (Parnassius phoebus), the Dark-veined White (Pieris bryoniae), the Mountain Clouded Yellow (Colias phicomone), the Arctic Blue (Plebejus glandon), the Alpine Argus (Plebejus orbitulus), Thor’s Fritillary (Boloria thore), the Alpine Heath (Coenonympha gardetta) and the Alpine Grayling (Oeneis glacialis).
Lastly, it should be noted that many of the most common and widespread butterflies of Europe are a common sight throughout the green valleys of the Alps. These include the magnificent Swallowtail (Papilio machaon) which can be encountered all summer in 2–3 generations and is frequently seen on meadows with a rich supply of wildflowers. Other common species include the Small Tortoiseshell (Nymphalis urticae) and the handsome Peacock Butterfly (Nymphalis io).
A common forest dweller is the Speckled Wood (Pararge aegeria) which is usually abundant along tracks and on clearings in forests and woodlands. It is notable for forming two distinct subspecies: Pararge aegeria tircis flies in central Europe and has cream-coloured markings on the upperside of the wings, while Pararge aegeria aegeria can be found across southern Europe and has orange markings instead. The boundary between the two subspecies runs across the southern slopes of the Alps, where intermediate forms can be encountered in some areas.
Orchids
Tbd.
Carnivorous plants
The nutrient-poor soils of Alpine grasslands are the home of several carnivorous plant species of the genus Pinguicula, better known as Butterworts. The two most commonly encountered species are the Common Butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris) and the Alpine Butterwort (Pinguicula alpina). They are fairly easy to identify, as the former has purple flowers, while the latter produces white flowers with characteristic yellow markings. Just like their famous cousins, the Sundews (Drosera), Butterworts possess characteristic rosettes of leaves that are densely covered in sticky glands designed to trap and digest small insects. The ability to feed on insects gives them an advantage over non-carnivorous competitors and allows them to grow in soils that are relatively poor in nutrients.
